A3 Problem Solving: is a structured problem solving and continuous improvement approach, first employed at Toyota and typically used by lean manufacturing practitioners. It provides a simple and strict procedure that guides problem solving by workers. The approach typically uses a single sheet of ISO A3 size paper, which is the source of its name.

Example of a worksheet for structured problem solving and continuous improvement

8D Approach: The eight disciplines (8D) model is a problem solving approach typically employed by quality engineers or other professionals, and is most commonly used by the automotive industry but has also been successfully applied in healthcare, retail, finance, government, and manufacturing. The purpose of the 8D methodology is to identify, correct, and eliminate recurring problems, making it useful in product and process improvement.

The 8D problem solving model establishes a permanent corrective action based on statistical analysis of the problem and focuses on the origin of the problem by determining its root causes. Although it originally comprised eight stages, or disciplines, the eight disciplines system was later augmented by an initial planning stage.

How To Use The 8D Approach:

  • D0: Plan – Plan for solving the problem and determine the prerequisites.
  • D1: Use a team – Select and establish a team of people with product/process knowledge.
  • D2: Define and describe the problem – Specify the problem by identifying in quantifiable terms the who, what, where, when, why, how, and how many (5W2H) for the problem.
  • D3: Develop interim containment plan; implement and verify interim actions – Define and implement containment actions to isolate the problem from any customer.
  • D4: Determine, identify, and verify root causes and escape points – Identify all applicable causes that could explain why the problem occurred. Also identify why the problem was not noticed at the time it occurred. All causes shall be verified or proved, not determined by fuzzy brainstorming. One can use 5 Whys and cause and effect diagrams to map causes against the effect or problem identified.
  • D5: Choose and verify permanent corrections (PCs) for problem/nonconformity – Through preproduction programs, quantitatively confirm that the selected correction will resolve the problem for the customer.
  • D6: Implement and validate corrective actions – Define and implement the best corrective actions (CA).
  • D7: Take preventive measures – Modify the management systems, operation systems, practices, and procedures to prevent recurrence of this and all similar problems.
  • D8: Congratulate your team – Recognize the collective efforts of the team. The team needs to be formally thanked by the organization.

Brainstorming: is a group creativity technique by which efforts are made to find a conclusion for a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its members In other words, brainstorming is a situation where a group of people meet to generate new ideas and solutions around a specific domain of interest by removing inhibitions. People are able to think more freely and they suggest as many spontaneous new ideas as possible. All the ideas are noted down without criticism and after the brainstorming session the ideas are evaluated.

A group of people write ideas on sticky notes as part of a brainstorming session.

Fishbone Diagrams: (Ishikawa diagrams) are causal diagrams created by Kaoru Ishikawa that show the potential causes of a specific event. Common uses of the Ishikawa diagram are product design and quality defect prevention to identify potential factors causing an overall effect. Each cause or reason for imperfection is a source of variation. Causes are usually grouped into major categories to identify and classify these sources of variation.

Example cause and effect diagram

Sample Ishikawa diagram shows the causes contributing to problem.

The defect is shown as the fish’s head, facing to the right, with the causes extending to the left as fishbones; the ribs branch off the backbone for major causes, with sub-branches for root-causes, to as many levels as required.

Ishikawa diagrams were popularized in the 1960s by Kaoru Ishikawa, who pioneered quality management processes in the Kawasaki shipyards, and in the process became one of the founding fathers of modern management.

The basic concept was first used in the 1920s, and is considered one of the seven basic tools of quality control. It is known as a fishbone diagram because of its shape, similar to the side view of a fish skeleton.

Advantages

  • Highly visual brainstorming tool which can spark further examples of root causes
  • Quickly identify if the root cause is found multiple times in the same or different causal tree
  • Allows one to see all causes simultaneously
  • Good visualization for presenting issues to stakeholders

Disadvantages

  • Complex defects might yield a lot of causes which might become visually cluttering
  • Interrelationships between causes are not easily identifiable

Root Causes

Root-cause analysis is intended to reveal key relationships among various variables, and the possible causes provide additional insight into process behavior.

The causes emerge by analysis, often through brainstorming sessions, and are grouped into categories on the main branches off the fishbone. To help structure the approach, the categories are often selected from one of the common models shown below, but may emerge as something unique to the application in a specific case.

Each potential cause is traced back to find the root cause, often using the 5 Whys technique.

Typical categories include:

The 5 Ms (used in manufacturing)

Originating with lean manufacturing and the Toyota Production System, the 5 Ms is one of the most common frameworks for root-cause analysis:

  • Man / mind power (physical or knowledge work, includes: kaizens, suggestions)
  • Machine (equipment, technology)
  • Material (includes raw material, consumables, and information)
  • Method (process)
  • Measurement / medium (inspection, environment)

These have been expanded by some to include an additional three, and are referred to as the 8 Ms:

  • Mission / mother nature (purpose, environment)
  • Management / money power (leadership)
  • Maintenance

The 8 Ps (used in product marketing)

This common model for identifying crucial attributes for planning in product marketing is often also used in root-cause analysis as categories for the Ishikawa diagram:

  • Product (or service)
  • Price
  • Place
  • Promotion
  • People (personnel)
  • Process
  • Physical evidence (proof)
  • Performance

The 8 Ps are primarily used in product marketing.

The 4 Ss (used in service industries)

An alternative used for service industries, uses four categories of possible cause:

  • Surroundings
  • Suppliers
  • Systems
  • Skill

7 Step Problem Solving: with a standardized, disciplined and methodical approach is by far the best way of understanding root causes, exploring influences and implementing solutions that not only work, but also stay effective over time. The best solution to a problem is not always the most obvious and only after careful thought and assessment can the most suitable and feasible solution or solutions be implemented. The 7 step problem solving guide provided below has been created to help solve problems where the solution or in some cases the problem itself is not obvious.

STEP 1: The Right Problem to Solve
STEP 2: Analyse the Problem
STEP 3: Define the Problem
STEP 4: Develop Opportunities (Possible Solutions)
STEP 5: Select the Best Solution
STEP 6: Implement the Solution
STEP 7: Evaluate and Learn

When should problem solving be used?

Anytime you have a goal to achieve or simply experience a challenge, problem solving techniques can be adopted. The steps provided can be used on any problem no matter how small and simple, or large and complex with the only difference being the amount of overall time required to be spent on the problem at hand. Unfortunately effective problem solving does take some time and attention to detail but the rewards for the time taken may far outweigh the consequences for leaving problems in place.

Five whys (5 whys): is an iterative interrogative technique used to explore the cause-and-effect relationships underlying a particular problem. The primary goal of the technique is to determine the root cause of a defect or problem by repeating the question “Why?”. Each answer forms the basis of the next question. The “five” in the name derives from an anecdotal observation on the number of iterations needed to resolve the problem.

Not all problems have a single root cause. If one wishes to uncover multiple root causes, the method must be repeated asking a different sequence of questions each time.

The method provides no hard and fast rules about what lines of questions to explore, or how long to continue the search for additional root causes. Thus, even when the method is closely followed, the outcome still depends upon the knowledge and persistence of the people involved.

Example

An example of a problem is: The vehicle will not start.

  1. Why? – The battery is dead. (First why)
  2. Why? – The alternator is not functioning. (Second why)
  3. Why? – The alternator belt has broken. (Third why)
  4. Why? – The alternator belt was well beyond its useful service life and not replaced. (Fourth why)
  5. Why? – The vehicle was not maintained according to the recommended service schedule. (Fifth why, a root cause)

The questioning for this example could be taken further to a sixth, seventh, or higher level, but five iterations of asking why is generally sufficient to get to a root cause. The key is to encourage the trouble-shooter to avoid assumptions and logic traps and instead trace the chain of causality in direct increments from the effect through any layers of abstraction to a root cause that still has some connection to the original problem. Note that, in this example, the fifth “why” suggests a broken process or an alterable behavior, which is indicative of reaching the root-cause level.

The last answer points to a process. This is one of the most important aspects in the five why approach – the real root cause should point toward a process that is not working well or does not exist. Untrained facilitators will often observe that answers seem to point towards classical answers such as not enough time, not enough investments, or not enough manpower. These answers may be true, but they are out of our control. Therefore, instead of asking the question why?, ask why did the process fail?

The PDCA Cycle: provides a simple and effective approach for solving problems and managing change. It enables businesses to develop hypotheses about what needs to change, test these hypotheses in a continuous feedback loop, and gain valuable learning and knowledge. It promotes testing improvements on a small scale before updating company-wide procedures and work methods. The PDCA cycle consists of four components:

Plan – Identify the problem, collect relevant data, and understand the problem’s root cause, develop hypotheses about what the issues may be, and decide which one to test.

Do – Develop and implement a solution; decide upon a measurement to gauge its effectiveness, test the potential solution, and measure the results.

Check – Confirm the results through before-and-after data comparison. Study the result, measure effectiveness, and decide whether the hypothesis is supported or not.

Act – Document the results, inform others about process changes, and make recommendations for the future PDCA cycles. If the solution was successful, implement it. If not, tackle the next problem and repeat the PDCA cycle again.

DMAIC: is a data-driven method used to systematically improve the process. The approach aims to increase the quality of a product or service by focusing on optimizing the process that produces the output. This way DMAIC seeks to provide permanent solutions when it comes to process improvement.

DMAIC is an acronym that stands for Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control.

Decision Making Tools: There are many different tools and techniques that are used to choose among the alternatives and make the right decision.

SWOT Analysis: can help you identify the forces that influence a strategy, action, or initiative. This information can then be used to guide you in the right direction and support your business decisions.

Decision Matrix: when you are dealing with multiple choices and variables, a decision matrix can bring clarity to the disarray.

Pareto Analysis: The principle is named after economist Vilfredo Pareto, who found that an 80/20 distribution occurs regularly in the world. The Pareto Principle helps in identifying changes that will be the most effective for your business.

Cost Benefit Analysis: is an effective tool for decision-making because it takes preferences, resources, and informational constraints into account, so managers can make more optimal decisions based on this information.

Ishikawa Diagram: One of the best decision-making tools is called cause-and-effect diagram, also known as fishbone diagram or Ishikawa diagram.  Cause and Effect or Ishikawa Diagram shows the causes of a particular event.